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Works of Art on Paper
Abstracts of the Baltimore Conference 2002
NEW TOOLS TO MEASURE LONG-TERM PAPER STABILITY
R. Bruce Arnold
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has completed a five-year program of research into the aging of printing and writing papers. From studies at five internationally respected research institutions have come three methods to accelerate paper aging. The methods use elevated temperature, elevated light flux and elevated concentration of the common atmospheric pollutant gas, nitrogen dioxide, to accelerate aging. Because of the careful scientific inquiry involved, the research professionals can provide assurance that the methods are scientifically sound. They generate physical and chemical changes in paper that are essentially the same as those that occur after long-term natural aging. Use of the test methods permits evaluation of the stability of papers to long-term natural aging effects and allows for their classification into stable, moderately stable and unstable categories. The test methods can be used for both new and old papers to assess their stability to future aging.
STRUCTURAL FEATURES AND CONSERVATION PROBLEMS OF TURKISH MANUSCRIPTS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR SOLUTIONS
Nil Baydar
Turkish manuscripts, particularly those dating from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, have some features in common with the Islamic tradition and others which are uniquely their own. This article reviews the various materials and processes involved: paper, sizing and burnishing, the inks used by the scribes, the style of binding, and the way that the leather used is dyed and ornamented. Some conservation problems arise directly from these traditional methods and materials. The binding format -- which includes a fore-edge flap attached to the back cover and an envelope flap which encases the book by being inserted under the front cover -- leads to damage in use, while special difficulties are encountered when pages are formed from more than one kind of paper. Gilding with a high copper content, used for ruling lines, deteriorates the paper as the copper oxidizes, so that the text areas can break away from the surrounding margins. Some conservation solutions are proposed, and the paper touches briefly on the lack of a sufficient number of trained conservators to deal with the huge numbers of such manuscripts in Turkey.
EXPLORATIONS OF THE ROLE OF HUMIDITY FLUCTUATIONS IN THE DETERIORATION OF PAPER
John Bogaard and Paul M. Whitmore
The control of relative humidity is generally recognized as an important consideration in the proper storage and display of paper materials. However, the amount that the humidity can fluctuate and the rate at which it can change without causing damage are still unknown. In this study, samples of cotton filter paper (Whatman No. 42) were held at room temperature in a chamber having a relative humidity that alternated between 25 and 75% every two hours. Papers were removed from this chamber at intervals and analyzed for chemical deterioration, discoloration and strength loss. After roughly 2200 humidity cycles, the paper had suffered a reduction in cellulose degree of polymerization to one-half its initial value, nearly its leveling-off DP, and its zero-span tensile strength had fallen to one-third the initial fibrer strength. Chemical products were found to be consistent with a predominantly hydrolytic degradation. These results, and the course of the strength loss during degradation, suggest that the cycling humidity causes rapid stress-induced hydrolysis in this filter paper.
A BRUSH WITH NATURE: AN HISTORICAL AND TECHNICAL ANALYSIS OF THE PAPERS AND BOARDS USED AS SUPPORTS FOR LANDSCAPE OIL SKETCHING
Peter Bower
From the early eighteenth century onwards, artists began to use both papers and boards for oil sketching out of doors. This artist-led innovation relied on various wrapping papers, laminated papers, millboards, pasteboards and pasteless boards, all of which were designed and made for purposes other than oil sketching. By the early years of the nineteenth century artists' colourmen were advertising 'papers and boards for oil sketching', but most of these were still actually designed and produced for other purposes, merely chosen by artists for their strength or texture or other appropriate qualities. By the mid nineteenth century, however, under pressure from artists' colourmen intent on supplying the now flourishing amateur market, various paper and board mills in Britain and and the rest of Europe were producing papers and boards specifically designed for use with oil paints. This paper surveys the developments in both artistic practice and the manufacture of the papers and boards available to artists, through the examination of works by various artists including Thomas Jones, J.M.W. Turner and John Constable.
USING MICROFOCUS X-RADIOGRAPHY AND OTHER TECHNIQUES TO CREATE A DIGITAL WATERMARK DATABASE
A. Jean E. Brown and Richard Mulholland
The watermark in a sheet of paper can be the key to valuable information for art and paper historians, forensic scientists and paper conservators. Difficulties resulting from the number of watermark images and the methods used to record them have resulted in this becoming a much under-used resource. The Conservation Unit and the Institute for Image Data Research at University of Northumbria, Newcastle have re-evaluated the use of watermarks in terms of paper history and conservation, and established an archive of watermark images and related information which can be accessed by content based image retrieval (CBIR). This paper presents a discussion of the radiographic techniques used for recording watermarks for digitization and image retrieval, and the practical utility and value of grenz microfocus X-radiography for the analysis of watermarks and paper. A number of films and developers are evaluated for image quality. Alternatives to X-ray-specific films and chemistry are suggested.
PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION OF PAPER-BASED COLLECTIONS WITHIN HISTORIC BUILDINGS
Anna E. Bülow, Belinda J. Colston and David S. Watt
The need for a wider understanding of the interface between buildings and their uses can be demonstrated by various examples of inappropriate adaptation. The research described in this paper forms part of an interdisciplinary project to develop a predictive computer model which will simulate the conditions within historic buildings used for library and archive purposes. The project will develop a practical understanding of macro- and micro-environments that have the potential to adversely affect paper-based collections housed within historic buildings. By making use of data collected from various libraries and archive repositories within the British Isles, as well as results from published research, the various mechanisms of deterioration and decay associated with dampness will be assessed for both collections and building fabric. The resulting data and information will be used to compile a database of cause and effect, and utilized in the design, initiation and testing of the predictive model.
THE JAPANESE HANGING SCROLL: A DECONSTRUCTION
Sara Burdett and Sydney Thomson
This paper aims to promote understanding of the complexities of Japanese scroll mounting and to provide a point of reference for paper conservators by highlighting some of the fundamental considerations that must be taken into account during the scroll mounting process. It provides a brief introduction to the historical development of the Japanese hanging scroll and explains the relevance of different scroll styles and formats. The individual components of a hanging scroll are identified and the choice of decorative elements such as silks and pommels is addressed. The paper also discusses three key materials used in the construction of a Japanese hanging scroll: textile, paper and paste.
'A SERIOUS AND UNIVERSAL EVIL': THE EARLY SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF PAPER DETERIORATION
Thea Burns
Concern in the later nineteenth century with the poor physical durability of important documents led to a call for the establishment of government-sponsored testing stations and government-endorsed standards of paper quality to ensure the longevity of paper-based records. This article follows German research from the establishment of a paper testing facility near Berlin in 1884. The publication in 1898 of the findings of a committee of the Society of Arts (England), formed to study paper quality, together with translated abstracts of the German work, made this research more widely known. In the 1920s, the Swedish government, seeking more definite information about paper properties, particularly specifications for chemical permanence, continued the earlier investigation. The re-examination of core issues as presented in the early scientific literature is essential for an understanding of the criteria for permanence standards accepted today.
THE LANGUAGE OF THE FAN: A COMPOSITE OBJECT CASE STUDY
Valinda Carroll and Pamela Young
Due to its significant provenance, a damaged eighteenth-century paper fan was selected for display at the Dewitt Wallace Decorative Arts Museum. The decorative elements included discolored lead white paint, cupped iron gall ink drawing, and corroded tin-plated copper sequins. The structure and material composition of the fan precluded aqueous treatments. The project encompassed material analysis, structural repair and mount design. Alternatives to wheat starch paste were proposed to limit moisture in mending the tears. The visual and mechanical properties of solvent-activated and pressure-sensitive adhesives were evaluated using mock-ups. The final step in preparing the fan for exhibition was to design an appropriate storage and display mount.
THE RATE OF WASHING OF PAPER
Vincent Daniels and Joanna Kosek
Conservation washing of paper involves the removal of water-soluble materials. In order to study the factors which influence the rate and extent of washing, a model discoloured paper was made in the laboratory by immersing filter paper in a concentrated extract from old mounting board. The washing kinetics of this paper were studied by subjecting samples to various treatments performed for different times, and measuring the visible reflectance of samples. It was discovered that the treated paper became more difficult to wash as it aged and that a residue of the stain remained in the paper even when washed immediately after treatment. This observation may help to explain why stains such as 'tide-marks' are difficult to remove. It was demonstrated that increasing the temperature increased both the rate and the extent of washing. Seven different washing processes used in paper conservation were studied to determine the water content of the paper during the processes, and the rate and extent of washing at intervals during a two-hour washing period. Ultraviolet fluorescence revealed the uniformity of washing. The implications for conservation are discussed.
ANALYSIS OF THE ARCHIMEDES PALIMPSEST
Jane L. Down, Gregory S. Young, R. Scott Williams and Maureen A. MacDonald
The Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) was contracted by the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore to assess the state of deterioration and identify the material components of the Archimedes Palimpsest and to identify effective solvents for removal of modern binding adhesive prior to disbinding for image analysis of the Archimedes text. This paper discusses the assessment of the current state of preservation of the parchment, using shrinkage temperature measurements and time-lapse video photography; the identification of materials, including adhesives, residues and accretions; the investigation of solvent systems to remove the modern adhesive; the identification of the tenth- and twelfth-century inks; and a study of the viability of mould found on the palimpsest.
THE ROLE OF GELATINE/ALUM SIZING IN THE DEGRADATION OF PAPER: A STUDY BY SIZE EXCLUSION CHROMATOGRAPHY IN LITHIUM CHLORIDE/N,N-DIMETHYLACETAMIDE USING MULTIANGLE LIGHT SCATTERING DETECTION
Anne-Laurence Dupont
Thus far, studies on the ageing of paper have largely ignored the role of sizing. The impact of gelatine/alum sizing on cellulose degradation upon ageing was therefore investigated. In order to study the long-term behaviour of the gelatine/alum/cellulose systems, pure cellulose paper was sized and artificially aged in heat/humidity environmental chambers. The paper was dissolved in lithium chloride/N,N-dimethylacetamide (LiCl/DMAc) and analysed by size exclusion chromatography (SEC) on a poly(styrene-divinyl benzene) column set with refractive index (RI) and multi-angle light scattering (MALS) detectors. Results showed a decrease in the molar mass of cellulose upon ageing. The presence of alum in the paper significantly increased the degradation rate. Gelatine appeared to slow the alum-induced degradation.
DISCOLOURATION AND OPACITY IN PAPER FROM CONTACT WITH AIR AND POLLUTION: CHARACTERIZATION AND PROPOSAL FOR A REVERSING TREATMENT
Francisca Figueira, Ana Fernandes and Adriana Ferreira
Since 1997, in the paper conservation department of the Instituto Português de Conservação e Restauro, we have been documenting works on paper which present partial or total discolouration and which do not fit the general pattern. The discolouration does not seem to be caused by light or water but by prolonged contact with air. Visually this type of discolouration turns the paper more opaque and is not reversed by the usual treatments. In the research literature there is reference to photoxidation, foxing, 'tidelines' and other discolouration related to iron gall ink corrosion or from contact migration of unstable volatile organic materials, normally related to local high humidity absorption. Work on visual characterization, photographic documentation (UV and transmitted light) and simple analytical testing was carried out in order to support the empirical observation that the agent that caused the oxidation was air -- the humidified and polluted air found inside a building. Parallel to this, tests were made with different oxidizing and reducing agents to reverse the opacity. The paper also discusses the reason why the discolouration is accompanied by a loss of transparency.
A NEW METHOD FOR PAPER DEACIDIFICATION BASED ON CALCIUM HYDROXIDE DISPERSED IN NONAQUEOUS MEDIA
Rodorico Giorgi, Luigi Dei, Claudius Schettino and Piero Baglioni
Experimental results concerning the application of an innovative methodology for paper deacidification are reported. The method is based on stable calcium hydroxide colloidal dispersions in alcoholic media, particularly propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol. Deacidification processes are usually performed using alkaline earth hydroxides and bicarbonates in aqueous media, while some magnesium compounds are also effective as deacidifying agents in nonaqueous media. Calcium hydroxide particles have never previously been applied in nonaqueous media. They possess sub-micrometre sizes, play an alkaline-buffering role, and ensure high physicochemical compatibility with the substrate. Compared with many other solvents, propan-2-ol has low toxicity, is volatile, has low surface tension, and is environmentally friendly. These properties make the dispersion very attractive for various procedures applied to paper, such as spraying, immersion and brushing. Deacidification effects on acidic yellowed paper samples made from rags (fourteenth and nineteenth century) and woodpulp (twentieth century) were evaluated. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) and pH measurements were carried out before and after the treatments, and the results obtained were successful.
SURVEY OF THE STILL PHOTOGRAPH COLLECTION AT THE DANISH FILM INSTITUTE
K.R. Glud and J.S. Johnsen
The stills and posters archive at the Danish Film Institute houses a collection of approximately 2.3 million images from both Danish and foreign motion picture films. The collection contains black-and-white and colour photographic materials spanning the entirety of the twentieth century. The collection is kept under housing and storage conditions based upon human comfort. Signs of deterioration such as fading and discolouration are evident in parts of the collection. Furthermore the images are used frequently, and damage from poor handling, such as fingerprints, tears and scratches, is to be found on almost every image. In January 2001 a condition survey of the Danish part of the collection was carried out. The method used in the survey was based upon statistical and random sampling to determine the extent of deterioration and damage of the photographic material in the collection. The survey was a first step towards making a preservation plan.
EXAMINATION AND TREATMENT OF EARLY ANDY WARHOL HAND-COLORED LITHOGRAPHS
Meghan Goldmann
Nearly invisible, solvent-sensitive inks were found on several hand-colored lithographs from an edition of Andy Warhol's À la Recherche du Shoe Perdu portfolio, c. 1955. Research confirmed that the colorants were Dr. Ph. Martin's Synchromatic Transparent Watercolors, tinctorially brilliant but highly fugitive water-based inks. Preliminary instrumental analysis (Fourier transform infrared, high pressure liquid chromatography) characterized the inks as mixtures of various synthetic dyes, some of them similar to ordinary food coloring. Accelerated light aging and color change calculations indicated that these inks are among the most light-sensitive media found on works of art on paper. Options for treatment of works incorporating these popular inks and suggested restrictive exhibition guidelines are presented.
JAPANESE PAINTED PAPER SCREENS: MANUFACTURING MATERIALS AND PAINTING TECHNIQUES
Sandra Grantham
This paper deals with the creation of Japanese screens. A short introduction gives historical and architectural context followed by an outline of the development of screen decoration. Japanese hand papermaking, the construction of wooden supports, paper lining and the hinging for screen panels are briefly explained. The final section describes brushes, binders and pigments used to create both paintings and decorative papers, including how paints were made by artists and how they were applied.
CONSERVING ELEVEN LATE MEDIAEVAL MANUSCRIPTS FOR LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY
Lien Gyles and Ian Maver
This paper discusses the treatment of 11 late mediaeval manuscript volumes for Liverpool University. Three MSS retained contemporary bindings, but all had been interfered with and none was in a stable condition. The remaining eight MSS had been bound in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with unsatisfactory results. Methods of in situ repair are considered, and methods of humidifying, flattening and repairing vellum leaves of dismantled volumes. Treatment of original bindings and a design for new conservation bindings are described.
GOING, GOING, GONE - WHO BIDS THE HIGHEST CONSERVATION OUTPUT FOR ARCHIVES AND LIBRARIES?
Anna Haberditzl
Over the last 20 years in Germany, mass deacidification technologies have introduced a new industrial type of treatment to archives and libraries. At the sam time, individual conservation techniques have improved to a very high level. More and more often, preservation services are offered by private companies as an alternative to the workshops in public institutions. Archivists and librarians have got a much wider choice for spending their conservation budgets, presenting a challenge for preservation managers who have the task of coordinating very different activities. Hitherto, there has been no serious quantification system for conservation services. This paper illustrates the problems of archivists and librarians who are responsible for the preservation budget. Which treatment is suitable? Which offer is the right one? How is it possible to justify a large expenditure on a single object, when 100 others could be treated for the same price? The consequences for the job profile of young professional conservators are briefly discussed.
THE CONSERVATION OF THE BISHOP COLLECTION
Corinne Hillman
This study concerns the analysis and treatment of a private collection of war photographs published in 1942 using a photomechanical process. It also seeks to establish a system for the safe treatment of physically damaged and moisture-sensitive large-format material. The problems were diverse, including staining, residues and structural deformation, and there was evidence that the paper surface was sensitive to any form of moisture. The paper supports provided some stability, enabling essential technical analysis and remedial conservation treatment to be carried out.
EFFECTS OF COPPER ON DEGRADATION OF JAPANESE WOOD-BLOCK PRINTING PAPER OF THE LATE EDO ERA AND MODERN JAPANESE PAPER
Eriko Hoshi and Masahiro Kitada
The effect of copper-containing pigments on the deterioration of Japanese paper is investigated. A hand-coloured wood-block print of the late Edo era is used as a naturally aged specimen and modern Japanese papers painted with powdered malachite are used as accelerated ageing specimens. Discolouration of the print is examined with a three-dimensional fluorescence spectrometer and a spectrophotometer. Copper content in the specimen papers is measured by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS). The copper concentrations of the cross-sections of both types of specimen show a gradient. In addition, the copper concentration at the same depth of the artificially aged specimen paper shows an increase as time at high temperature increases. This results in a diffusion of copper species from the recto to the verso of the paper.
INSERTION-ACCELERATED AGEING TEST OF PAPER FOR CONSERVATION: INCREASE IN DISCOLOURATION OF ACID AND ALKALINE PAPER INTERFACE
Masamitsu Inaba, Motoko Ikeda, Kyoko Saito Katsumata, Takayuki Okayama, Osamu Nakano and Syuji Kamiya
Alkaline papers are used for preference in the conservation field, except with alkali-sensitive materials, since it is supposed that alkaline paper has beneficial effects for the preservation of acidic paper. The moist heat ageing of paper by the commonly used method of suspending paper in an oven was compared with an insertion method in which the test paper was inserted into books made of other types of paper. Alkaline paper increased the durability of acidic paper. However, some types of acidic paper were severely discoloured by insertion into a book of alkaline paper. This result shows that neutral paper might be preferable for use as envelopes for acidic paper, and that moist heat ageing by the insertion method is a valuable technique for the evaluation of conservation paper.
THE USE OF SIZE EXCLUSION CHROMATOGRAPHY (SEC) FOR THE EVALUATION OF PAPER DEGRADATION CAUSED BY NITROGEN OXIDES IN COMPARISON WITH OTHER METHODS
Heike Jerosch, Bertrand Lavédrine and J.-C. Cherton
In order to evaluate the deterioration of paper, classic methods such as pH measurement, viscosity or mechanical properties have found a large application. However, these relatively simple methods have their disadvantages, such as a rather large sample size, application limitations, and significance in regard to paper deterioration. Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) is a promising tool which has been applied to cellulose characterization using dimethylacetamide with lithium chloride as solvent system. SEC is a micro-destructive method which provides the mass weight distribution (MWD) and can indicate its evolution during a deterioration process. SEC was applied in order to obtain the MWD of different types of paper after exposure to nitrogen oxides. Mechanical properties were correlated to the classic methods and to the MWD. This study showed that SEC allows the detection of degradation before the mechanical properties of the paper are modified.
CONSERVATION OF MODERN NIHONGA (TRADITIONAL JAPANESE PAINTINGS) ON PAPER
Masako Koyano, Miho Yoneda, Rie Tojo, Mika Okawa and Masako Saito
Nihonga are traditional Japanese paintings executed with styles and techniques unique to Japan. The conservation of modern nihonga is complicated because of various new materials and techniques. The development of new coloring materials after World War II and the introduction of synthetic media brought significant changes to nihonga. In addition, new painting techniques and mounting styles were developed. The deterioration characteristics observed in current nihonga due to the use of these modern materials and techniques are discussed, as well as the conservation treatments employed.
THE PRESERVATION OF HISTORICAL OBJECTS MADE OF PAPER IN AUSCHWITZ-BIRKENAU STATE MUSEUM
Beate Kozub
The Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum in Owicim, created on the site of the former Nazi concentration camp, started its activity in the year 1947. The historic objects made of paper are stored in the Archive and Collection Departments of this Museum. Among the exhibits associated with Konzentrationslager Auschwitz-Birkenau the works made secretly in the camp are exceptionally valuable. They include books of fairy tales for children. Complex destinies left their traces on these books, being the evidence of their history. Unfortunately, the boundary between what is a trace of history and what is damage is blurred. In order to retain the genuine character of the object, it is very important to decide whether priority should be given to maintaining the traces or to removing the damage.
AN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE WALLPAPER: HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND CONSERVATION
Isabelle Lambert and Claude Laroque
The western 'panoramic' wallpapers found within historic houses are well known. Less familiar are the wall decorations on paper support created in China especially for export to Europe. This article presents the history of these types of decoration (geographical origin, trade and production period) as well as the techniques used for their production (supports, colours, mountings). There follows a report on the conservation treatment of such a decoration, measuring 29m2 and dating from the eighteenth century, initially hung in a private chateau, which has been dismounted and replaced in a public building in the city of Caen, France. A combination of Japanese tools and techniques and western techniques was used to meet the various requirements of the restoration.
EXAMINATION AND CONSERVATION OF THE FIFTEENTH-CENTURY PARCHMENT MANUSCRIPT, THE BELLES HEURES OF JEAN, DUKE OF BERRY
Margaret Lawson and Akiko Yamazaki-Kleps
The fifteenth-century illuminated manuscript known as the Belles Heures, commissioned by the Duke of Berry and painted by the Limbourg brothers, was examined in preparation for a facsimile project. Large white areas, white details and skin tones exhibited significant flaking and losses throughout the manuscript and research was initiated to identify the factors responsible. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis indicated that basic lead carbonate was present in both the white areas and in pigment admixtures, suggesting that lead white played an important role in the problem. Aging tests were conducted on selected binders alone and mixed with lead white to elucidate some possible causes of the media degradation and to determine the best consolidant to treat the manuscript. The conservation treatment of the disbound manuscript is briefly described.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSERVATION OF GLOBES
T.K. McClintock
Paper makes up the legible surfaces which distinguish historic printed globes as instruments of science and art. In its development as an area of specialty, the treatment of globes is informed by the conservation of other works on paper that are similar in media, complex in assembly, or dynamic in format. The varied materials of their construction also necessitate a familiarity with the conservation of furniture and the decorative arts, instruments and easel paintings. These observations address why paper conservators are responsible for the conservation of globes; the characteristics of their assembly and condition that affect their conservation; the relationship of their conservation to other works on paper; how the conservation of the non-paper components is integrated into a balanced treatment; and the place for specialization in the treatment of a specific type of object.
MARKING TIME: THE CONSERVATION OF HANNE DARBOVEN'S SEVEN PANELS AND INDEX
Margo McFarland
In 1977, the Art Institute of Chicago acquired Seven Panels and Index, a pivotal work by the German Conceptual artist Hanne Darboven. Representative of Darboven's calendrical 'non-writing', the piece consists of 266 sheets of soft graphite on paper, 823 pieces of pressure-sensitive tape, particle board, and aluminum framing elements. It is monumental in scale (3.81 × 7.67 meters) and complex in its construction. Improper storage of the work had resulted in near catastrophic damage. In the course of its three month-long treatment, Seven Panels and Index was completely disassembled, all pressure-sensitive tape was removed and adhesive residues were reduced. After stabilization, humidification and flattening, the work was reassembled using 'archival' tape, reformatted and reframed. This presentation explores technical and ethical conservation challenges, elucidates recent advances in the analysis of pressure-sensitive tape adhesives, and offers a thought-provoking approach to the conservation of twentieth-century works of art on paper.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CONSERVATION TREATMENT APPROACH FOR ISLAMIC MINIATURES
Zubair Ahmed Madani
This paper describes the preliminary results of a study on the conservation of Islamic miniature paintings. The goal of the project is to evaluate traditional methods that are currently being used in the South Asian subcontinent, Iran and Central Asia to restore Islamic miniatures, and to explore the possibility of more appropriate treatment methods drawn from the Japanese scroll mounting tradition (Hygu), and from the repertoire of paper conservation techniques currently practised in the west. Information was gathered on the materials and techniques used in the production of Islamic miniature paintings, and the type of damage which they suffer. Surrogate objects prepared with traditional materials were used for testing purposes. In many cases, sophisticated techniques and equipment were not available and simple substitutes were employed, including visual assessment of test results. The project is still in progress but materials and techniques which show particular promise for the treatment of Islamic miniature paintings and manuscripts include funori (a seaweed-based adhesive) for the consolidation of flaking and friable paint layers, the ultrasonic mister for paint consolidation, the moisture chamber or dome used in association with a suction table for humidification, and the karibari (drying board) for flattening.
THE USE OF DIGITAL IMAGING IN THE MASS REPAIR OF JAPANESE HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS AND SUTRAS: AN ALTERNATIVE TO DIRECT LEAF CASTING
Yasuhiro Oka and Jennifer Perry
The process of leaf casting has been practised in Europe and the United States for decades and has become highly sophisticated in recent years. This technology has been further developed in the Oka Bokkodo conservation studio to allow for the directional fiber flow that is characteristic of Japanese paper. In addition, a method of indirect leaf casting, using digital imaging, has been developed. In-fill papers for areas of loss are cast on a template produced from digital data and these are adhered to the original. The main advantages of this new technology are: (1) the original is not exposed to excessive amounts of water, (2) the casting method allows for directional fiber flow and (3) the time-consuming step of shaping complicated in-fills by hand is eliminated.
LIGHT AND DARK STABILITY OF LAMINATED AND FACE-MOUNTED PHOTOGRAPHS: A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
Sylvie Pénichon, Martin Jürgens and Alison Murray
The increasingly popular finishing techniques of laminating and face-mounting photographs and their effect on the long-term stability of the prints have not been extensively studied. In a preliminary investigation, colour photographs (unmounted, laminated, and face-mounted) were subjected to accelerated light- and dark-aging tests. In addition, samples of both unmounted and face-mounted prints underwent quantification of acetic (ethanoic) acid off-gassing. Face-mounted photographs were more sensitive to light than unmounted ones but showed better dark stability. Laminates with ultraviolet inhibitors slowed the light-fading of the prints. Acetic acid is off-gassed by acetoxy-curing silicone rubbers used in face-mounting and escapes from the edges of the prints at a rate which is partially governed by storage temperature.
EDGE REFLECTION ANALYSIS: A NEW TECHNIQUE FOR THE DOCUMENTATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC AND OTHER GLOSSY SURFACES
Klaus Pollmeier and Jonathan Arney
A new analytical technique for surface texture analysis is presented, called edge reflection analysis (ERA). The technique uses a digital image of the specular reflection of a diffuse light source on a glossy surface to calculate texture properties, like average angle of surface elements and their spatial frequency. Simple equipment and easily accessible software were used to create the required equipment and for image analysis and data evaluation. The technique was developed for the analysis of touch-sensitive objects, like photographs, in cases where existing analytical techniques are not affordable or are unsuitable. During a field test, manufacturers' paper sample books and a collection of prints by Edward Weston at the George Eastman House, International Museum of Photography and Film, were examined.
THE ARCHIMEDES PALIMPSEST: CONSERVATION TREATMENT, DIGITAL IMAGING AND TRANSCRIPTION OF A RARE MEDIAEVAL MANUSCRIPT
Abigail Quandt
The Archimedes Palimpsest, the earliest surviving copy of the treatises of Archimedes, is currently the focus of a major conservation, digital imaging and transcription project based at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore. The tenth-century manuscript, which contains the text and diagrams of seven of Archimedes's theorems, was taken apart in the twelfth century and the parchment sheets were recycled for the making of a Christian prayer book. The manuscript is in extremely poor condition, damaged by fire and water, as well as by mold which has stained and perforated the parchment. Four leaves containing the rarest texts of Archimedes are covered over by forged miniatures that were added sometime after 1929. This paper describes the work that is being done currently to disbind the palimpsest and prepare the bifolia for imaging. The removal of adhesive residues, including animal glue and a poly(vinyl acetate) emulsion, and the stabilization of mold-damaged areas, are discussed. Multi-spectral imaging is being used to capture the barely visible writings of Archimedes, which are then being transcribed by an international team of scholars working from high-resolution images produced in visible and ultraviolet light, and pseudocolor. The combined efforts of the imaging scientists and scholars will eventually result in a facsimile and critical edition of the palimpsest, which is expected to change dramatically our current understanding of Archimedes's thinking and the way in which his work serves as a foundation for modern science.
THE USE OF GEL ELECTROPHORESIS AND IMMUNOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES IN THE ANALYSIS OF GUM ARABIC
Patrick Ravines, Safa Motlagh, Mitra Samiei and Molly Dewey
Gum arabic, also known as acacia gum, is an abundant natural product that has been used throughout history. It has been extensively used in the manufacture of eastern and western inks, watercolors and gouache as a binder, and in historic photographic processes such as gum bichromate prints. Much research has been done on the analysis of acacia gums yet the main obstacle to their characterization has been the absence of an efficient separation technique. The most widely used technique has been size exclusion/gel filtration chromatography (SEC/GFC); however, even GFC has not provided adequate separation of the gum components. In addition to a brief overview of acacia gums, this presentation reviews the development of a new gel electrophoretic method for the separation and detection of the polysaccharides, glycoproteins and proteins that constitute acacia gums, and the use of specific antibodies to identify acacia gums at the species level.
THE YEATS ARCHIVE: A METHOD OF IDENTIFYING WAX CRAYON
Zoë Reid, Niamh McGuinne and John Fields
The National Gallery of Ireland is home to the archive of Jack B. Yeats, one of Ireland's foremost artists of the twentieth century. Although Yeats used wax crayon extensively in his later career, some of the works dating from between 1885 and 1900 have been catalogued as including crayon, which suggests a very early use of the medium. This research aimed to find a simple, in situ method for differentiating between pencil, crayon and waxy media, as visual identification alone is not conclusive. Wax crayon when melted releases the wax binder, creating a halo. Coloured pencils have a much lower wax content and no halo is formed. Other waxy media such as lithographic crayon have an oil component that it may be possible to identify under ultraviolet light, to distinguish them from wax crayon. It is important to establish the presence of wax due to the implications for conservation treatment, especially those methods that employ heat.
THE LIGHT SENSITIVITY OF IRON GALL INKS
Birgit Reissland and Margaret W. Cowan
Drawings and writings composed with iron gall inks frequently undergo colour changes which range from shifts in hue to extreme fading. Artificial ageing tests were carried out on 10 reference iron gall inks of different iron sulphate/gallic acid ratios applied on two different types of paper. Each ink application was subjected to the following three artificial ageing procedures: humid oven ageing, light ageing, and a combination of humid oven ageing and subsequent light ageing. Colour changes in samples were determined by quantitative colour measurements with a reflected light spectrophotometer before, during and after the artificial ageing tests. Comparison of the results indicated that the test inks are indeed light sensitive and even fall into the fugitive category. Recommendations for the exhibition of objects containing iron gall inks are proposed.
A STUDY OF DAYFLOWER BLUE USED IN UKIYO-E PRINTS
Shiho Sasaki and Pauline Webber
Dayflower blue is one of the traditional colourants used in Ukiyo-e prints (Japanese woodcut prints). Some of the botanical and chemical properties of the colourant are studied, together with historical use and production. This article also presents a study on the original state of the printed colourant, prior to its deterioration. Traditional techniques and materials were used for making sample prints. This record of the non-damaged colours enabled the authors to assess the condition of several Ukiyo-e prints in the collections of the Victoria & Albert Museum, London.
SPONTANEOUS FORMATION OF ACIDS IN THE NATURAL AGING OF PAPER
Chandru J. Shahani and Gabrielle Harrison
Until now, only acids introduced in the manufacture of paper and those absorbed from the environment have been believed mainly responsible for the degradation of paper. Experimental evidence is presented to show that significant concentrations of several organic acids are spontaneously generated in the natural aging of all cellulose-based papers, including alkaline papers. Easily detectable concentrations of formic (methanoic), acetic (ethanoic), lactic, glycolic, oxalic and a few other as yet unidentified acids accumulate within a few months of manufacture in paper stored under ambient conditions. It is proposed that the formation of weak organic acids from the oxidation of carbohydrate fragments comprises an essential element of a mechanism for the aging of cellulose. Oxidation and acid hydrolysis reactions reinforce each other in this reaction mechanism to promote an ever-accelerating degradative process. Based upon these findings, a new accelerated aging test for paper has been developed that shows a greater similarity to natural aging than presently accepted accelerated aging methods.
HIGHLIGHTS OF PAPER RESEARCH AT THE CANADIAN CONSERVATION INSTITUTE
S. Tse, P. Bégin and E. Kaminska
This article describes three major paper research projects at the Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI): studying the effect of deionized water washing and aqueous deacidification; evaluation of mass deacidification processes; and studying the role of lignin in paper permanence. The impact of these results on conservation treatments, selection of storage materials and development of policies for preventive measures is also discussed.